Language Attitudes, Motivation, and Standards
Early research on motivation involved
questionnaire type reactions to statements about learning and beliefs. From
this came the well-known categories of intrinsic, extrinsic, integrative and
instrumental motivation.
The key point here is the individual motivational profile of each
learner or group of learners.
Accommodation theory
Accommodation theory aims to relate
attitude and motivation to social interaction. It describes how speakers
(native or non-native) alter their speech patterns to accommodate their
interlocutor in order to ‘fit in’. They may do this by using more prestige
forms or alternatively by using more socially marked features of language to
establish their identity.
The key point for second language
learners is that of ability; if the learner lacks sufficient command of the
language then she is not able to adjust her speech accordingly. This in turn
leads to questions of communication anxiety, which is anxiety caused by the
speaker not being able to match their speech to their interlocutor as they
would like, thus causing them to worry about judgments that may be made about
them.
In a study of highly proficient
speakers of English vs native speakers, it was found that it was the relative
expert on the topic who dominated the conversation – native speaker or not.
When expertise was equal there no apparent dominant figure in the conversation.
Teacher attitudes
Research done in the 1970s in Chicago
collected samples of written work by black and white children and gave them
anonymously to teachers to grade. The study found that white teachers tended to
stereotype writing that included features typical of ‘black Vernacular English’
(ibid:16), even though it was of comparable academic quality. A similar study
in the 1980s showed that teachers whose first language was not Spanish
consistently awarded lower grades to work by children that showed Spanish
features.
The implication is that teachers’ first language or ethnicity can have a
significant impact on how they may treat groups in a school setting.
Student attitude
A learner of English becomes more
familiar with variations and dialects in the language as their exposure
increases, especially after a stay in an ESL environment. Studies have shown
that learners nearing proficiency often choose carefully what form of English
they choose to adopt. For example a Spanish learner of English may prefer a
prestige form of English because it makes a difference in achieving his goals,
even though his background is not a mainstream prestige community.
Parents may also make similar choices
for their children especially if they feel that their own upbringing was
prejudiced because of their language. Historical experiences of groups that may
have been marginalized or oppressed bring may result in other feelings towards
particular discourse communities.
The implication for teaching:
teachers would do well to understand the socio-linguistic background of their
students.
Importantly, McGroarty notes that
formal language study does not necessary improve the feelings of students
towards the language or target group itself. That depends very much on length
of study and quality/context of teaching.
Norms and standards
A linguistic norm is language that is used most of the
time. It is an impartial assessment of frequent language use. However, people
harbor strong feelings towards language usage and often see certain forms as
right or wrong. The educated public’s usage of norm, then, carries
a positive evaluation. For them, change often
equates to decline and
brings with it corresponding assessments of society. This creates tension
between linguists and the public, and yet is important because it has a real
effect on educational discourse. It has lead to linguists taking a position of
‘prescriptive abstinence’ (Coulmas 1989:177) requiring them not to pass
judgement on matters of good or bad language. As schools are usually the (often
self-appointed) front line for the upholding of norms or standards, teachers
should be especially aware of such issues and sensitive to the respective
backgrounds of students.
Implication for teaching: the language you use and study in class is
never neutral. It is indicative of certain power relationships and social
domains that will have corresponding meaning to your students. The classic
dichotomy between British vs American English can be seen as entirely redundant
– the emergence of English around the world adds infinitely new dimensions to
this argument and we must be aware of this in the context in which we teach.
Further educational implications
Given the multitude of factors that
contribute to attitudes, motivation and standards, it is important that
teachers do not base their work on theoretical assumptions about their learners
without trying to discover their genuine motivations, attitudes and environments.
There is no one single formula for increasing student motivation. The key to
doing this is to investigate thoroughly what makes each learner tick – what
brings them to the classroom? What are their assumptions and predispositions to
language? Working with other teachers if possible, learning to differentiate
instruction and encouraging meta cognitive strategies in learners (learner
training) can greatly improve the atmosphere of a class and school.
The power of intrinsic motivation
should not be underestimated, although it often appears beyond the control of
the teacher. By using texts that learners can use for enjoyment, not only for
learning, we can help to promote personal satisfaction with the object of study
and in that way create the conditions for intrinsic motivation to be fostered.
Allowing learners to choose their own topics and integrating a variety of
interesting materials are also seen as important.
It is crucial for teachers and
students to recognize that multiple standards exist and teachers should make
every effort to identify what functions and forms of language matter to their
learners.
Building on this is the importance of
the connection between language and social identity. All learners have a need
to establish their own social identity and in order to allow this to develop
teachers must be careful not to restrict ‘acceptable’ language in class to only
that language which fits a norm that could be socially divisive. To meet a
variety of preexisting attitudes toward language teachers must also use group
work that does not allow only certain abilities to dominate interaction.
Evaluation
The tensions described above will
continue and the main challenge for teachers is to raise awareness whilst also
providing opportunities for practice and development of language which is
valued by each learner. In-so-doing they will help learners participate more
effectively in society.
